1918
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Year 1918 (MCMXVIII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Monday[1] of the 13-day-slower Julian calendar).
- Contents (full)
- 1 Events of 1918
- 2 Births
- 3 Deaths
- 4 Nobel Prizes
- 5 See also - Notes - External links
[edit] Events of 1918
[edit] January
- January 12 - Finland enacts "Mosaic Confessors" law granting Finnish Jews civil rights.
- January 25 - The Ukrainian people declare independence from Bolshevik Russia.
- January 27 - Breakout of the Finnish Civil War.
[edit] February
- February 1 - Russia switches from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian calendar, date skips to February 14.
- February 16 - The Council of Lithuania adopts the Act of Independence of Lithuania, declaring Lithuania's independence from the Russian Empire.
- February 24 - After 7 centuries of foreign rule, Estonia declares its independence from the Russian Empire. The country is occupied by Germany the next day. Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia also declare their independence from the Russian Empire but as the Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic.
[edit] March
- March 1 - German submarine U 19 sinks HMS Calgarian off Rathlin Island, Northern Ireland.
- March 3 - World War I: Germany, Austria and Bolshevist Russia sign the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk ending Russia's involvement in the war.
- March 5 - The Soviet Russia moves its national capital from Petrograd to Moscow
- March 6 - Finnish Air Force founded. The blue swastika is adopted as its symbol as a tribute to the Swedish explorer and aviator Eric von Rosen who donated the first plane. Von Rosen had painted the Buddhist symbol on the plane as his personal lucky insignia.
- March 7 - World War I: Finland forms an alliance with Germany.
- March 12 – Moscow becomes the capital of Soviet Russia.
- March 19 - The U.S. Congress establishes time zones and approves daylight saving time (DST went into effect on March 31).
- March 21 - World War I: Second Battle of the Somme begins.
- March 23
- The giant German cannon, the so-called Paris Gun begins to shell Paris from 114 km (75 miles) away.
- In London at the Wood Green Empire, Chung Ling Soo (William E Robinson, US-born magician) dies during his trick where he was supposed to "catch" two separate bullets – one of them perforates his lung. He dies the following morning in hospital.
- The Social Revolutionary Party declares Belarus independent; Bolshevik armies soon crush them.
- March 25 - for the first time Belarus declares independence.
[edit] April
- April 1 - The Royal Flying Corps and the Royal Naval Air Service are merged to form the Royal Air Force.
[edit] May
- May 1 - German troops enter Don province; they take Rostov May 6.
- May 2 - General Motors acquires the Chevrolet Motor Company of Delaware.
- 11 May - The Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus was officially established.
- May 15 - The Post Office Department (later renamed the USPS) begins the first regular airmail service in the world (between New York City, Philadelphia and Washington).
- May 16 - The Sedition Act of 1918 is approved by US Congress.
- May 26 - The Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic is abolished. Georgia declares its independence as the Democratic Republic of Georgia.
- May 28 - Armenia and Azerbaijan declare their independence as the Democratic Republic of Armenia and the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic respectively.
[edit] June
- June 1 - World War I: Battle for Belleau Wood begins.
[edit] July
- July 3- The Siberian Expedition is launched to extract the Czechoslovak Legion from the Russian civil war.
- July 4 - Change of emperor of the Ottoman Empire from Mehmed V (Resad) (1909-1918) to Mehmed VI (Vahdettin) (1918-1922).
- July 9 - Great train wreck of 1918: In Nashville, an inbound local train collides with an outbound express killing 101.
- July 13 - The National Czechoslovak Committee was established.
- July 15 - World War I: Second Battle of the Marne - The battle begins near the River Marne with a German attack.
- July 16 - By order of the Bolshevik Party and carried out by Cheka, Emperor Nicholas II of Russia, his immediate family, and retainers were murdered at the Ipatiev House in Ekaterinburg, Russia.
[edit] August
- August - "Spanish Flu" Influenza becomes pandemic; over twenty-five million people die in the following six months (almost two times as many as died during the war).
- August 1
- British anti-Bolshevik forces occupy Archangel. August 10 commander is told to help White Russians.
- Emma Susan Daugherty Banister becomes the first female sheriff in the United States following the death of her husband, John Riley Banister.
- August 8 - World War I: Battle of Amiens - Canadian troops, backed by Australians, begin a string of almost continuous victories with a push through the German front lines. German General Erich Ludendorff will later call this the "black day of the German army."
- August 30
- Strike of 20,000 London policemen with demands of increased pay and union recognition.
- Fanya Kaplan tries to shoot Lenin. Petrograd head of Cheka is assassinated the same day.
[edit] September
- September 11 - The Boston Red Sox defeat the Chicago Cubs for the 1918 World Series championship, their last World Series win until 2004. They won again in 2007.
- September 29 - Bulgaria requests an armistice in World War I.
[edit] October
- October 3 - Kaiser makes Max von Baden German chancellor.
- October 3 - Abdication of King Ferdinand of Bulgaria in the wake of the collapse of the Bulgarian military position in World War I. He is succeeded by his son, Boris III.
- October 8 - World War I - In the Argonne Forest in France, US Corporal Alvin C. York almost single-handedly kills 25 German soldiers and captures 132.
- October 15 - The great spiritual teacher Sri Sai Baba of Shirdi attained his MAHASAMADHI
- October 18
- The city of Mayagüez was nearly destroyed by an earthquake and a tsunami.
- Washington Declaration proclaimed the independent Czechoslovak Republic.
- October 25 - The Princess Sophia sinks on Vanderbilt Reef near Juneau, 353 people die in the greatest maritime disaster in the Pacific Northwest.
- October 28
- Czechoslovakia declares its independence on Austria-Hungary.
- New Polish government in Western Galicia
- October 30
- The Martin Declaration is published, embodying Slovakia into the forming Czecho-Slovak state.
- Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen declares independence from the Ottoman Empire.
- October - Mammy Lou becomes the oldest person to ever star in a film, at age 114.
[edit] November
- November 1
- Malbone Street Wreck: the worst rapid transit accident in world history occurs under the intersection of Malbone Street and Flatbush Avenue, Brooklyn, New York City, with at least 93 dead.
- Ruthenia in eastern Czechoslovakia declares brief independence
- November 3
- November 4
- World War I: Austria-Hungary surrenders to Italy.
- Mutiny in the German fleet at Kiel begin the German Revolution.
- November 6 - A new Polish government is proclaimed in Lublin.
- November 8 - German army withdraws its support of the Kaiser
- November 9
- Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany abdicates and chooses to live in exile in the Netherlands.
- Provisional National Council Minister-President Kurt Eisner declares Bavaria to be a republic.
- November 11
- World War I ends: Germany signs an armistice agreement with the Allies in a railroad car outside of Compiègne in France.
- Poland regains independence after 123 years of partitions. Józef Piłsudski is appointed Commander-in-Chief.
- Emperor Charles I of Austria gives up his absolute power but does not abdicate.
- November 12 - Austria becomes a republic.
- November 14
- Czechoslovakia becomes a republic.
- Józef Piłsudski is appointed head of state of Poland
- November 16
- Hungary declares independence from Austria
- Hungarian People's Republic declared
- November 18 - Latvia declares its independence from Russia.
- November 22
- Spartacist League founds German Communist Party
- Belgian royal family returns to Brussels after the war
- November 26 - the Podgorica Assembly voted for "union of the people", declaring a joining into the Kingdom of Serbia
- November 28 - Estonian Freedom War: Bolshevist Russia invades Estonia, beginning of the war. A socialist republic is established in Narva the next day.
[edit] December
- December 1
- Iceland becomes a self-governing kingdom, yet remains in personal union with the king of Denmark who also becomes king of the Kingdom of Iceland.
- New voting laws in Sweden: votes no longer dependent on taxable assets; one person, one vote.
- Proclamation of Union of Alba Iulia. Following the March 27 incorporation of Bessarabia and Bucovina, Transylvania unites with Romania.
- The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later known as the Kingdom of Yugoslavia) is proclaimed.
- December 4 - US President Woodrow Wilson sails for the Paris Peace Conference, becoming the first US president to travel to Europe while in office.
- December 20 - Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk returned to the Czechoslovak Republic.
- December 27 - Beginning of Great Poland Uprising, the Poles in Greater Poland (or Grand Duchy of Poznań) rise against the Germans.
- December 28 - Constance Markiewicz becomes the first woman elected to the British House of Commons.
[edit] Undated
- Habsburg Empire ceases to exist.
- Grand Duchy of Baden ceases to exist.
- British occupy Palestine
- Native American Church is founded.
- Ernest Ansermet founds the Orchestre de la Suisse Romande.
- Association Against the Prohibition Amendment founded to promote repeal of prohibition in U.S.
- United Business Media founded in London (as United Newspapers Ltd.)
[edit] Ongoing
- Finnish Civil War between the Reds and the Whites, from January - April.
- Katla erupts in Iceland, from 12 October - 4 November.
[edit] Births
| Gregorian calendar | 1918 MCMXVIII
|
| Ab urbe condita | 2671 |
| Armenian calendar | 1367 ԹՎ ՌՅԿԷ |
| Bahá'í calendar | 74 – 75 |
| Buddhist calendar | 2462 |
| Coptic calendar | 1634 – 1635 |
| Ethiopian calendar | 1910 – 1911 |
| Hebrew calendar | 5678 – 5679 |
| Hindu calendars | |
| - Vikram Samvat | 1973 – 1974 |
| - Shaka Samvat | 1840 – 1841 |
| - Kali Yuga | 5019 – 5020 |
| Holocene calendar | 11918 |
| Iranian calendar | 1296 – 1297 |
| Islamic calendar | 1336 – 1337 |
| Japanese calendar | Taishō
7
|
| - Imperial Year | Kōki 2578 (皇紀2578年) |
| Julian calendar | 1963 |
| Korean calendar | 4251 |
| Thai solar calendar | 2461 |
[edit] January - March
- January 1 - Patrick Anthony Porteous, Scottish recipient of the Victoria Cross (d. 2000)
- January 10 - Arthur Chung, President of Guyana
- January 15 - Gamal Abdal Nasser, 2nd President of Egypt (d. 1970)
- January 16
- Nel Benschop, Dutch poet (d. 2005)
- Stirling Silliphant, American writer and producer (d. 1996)
- January 19 - John H. Johnson, American publisher (d. 2005)
- January 20 - Juan García Esquivel, Mexican bandleader (d. 2002)
- January 21 - Richard D. Winters, U.S. Army officer
- January 23 - Gertrude B. Elion, American scientist recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1999)
- January 24 - Oral Roberts, American neo-Pentecostal televangelist
- January 25 - Ernie Harwell, American baseball sportscaster
- January 26
- Nicolae Ceauşescu, Romanian dictator (d. 1989)
- Philip José Farmer, American writer
- January 27
- Skitch Henderson, English-born musician and bandleader (d. 2005)
- Elmore James, American musician (d. 1963)
- January 29 - John Forsythe, American actor
- February 1 - Muriel Spark, Scottish author (d. 2006)
- February 2 - Hella Haasse, Dutch writer
- February 3
- Helen Stephens, American runner (d. 1994)
- Joey Bishop, American entertainer, member of the Rat Pack (d. 2007)
- February 4 - Janet Waldo, American Actress & Voice Artist, (voice of Judy Jetson on The Jetsons)
- February 6 - Lothar-Günther Buchheim, German author (d. 2007)
- February 7 - Markey Robinson, Irish painter (d. 1999)
- February 8 - Fred Blassie, American professional wrestler (d. 2003)
- February 12 - Julian Schwinger, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1994)
- February 15 - Allan Arbus, Dr. Sidney Freedman on M*A*S*H
- February 16 - Patty Andrews, American singer (The Andrews Sisters)
- February 17 - William Bronk, American poet (d. 1999)
- February 20 - Ben Klassen, founder of the Creativity racist sect.
- February 22
- Don Pardo, Saturday Night Live announcer
- Robert Pershing Wadlow, American tallest man record-holder (d. 1940)
- Charlie Finley, Owner of the Oakland A's 1960-80 (d. 1996)
- February 25
- Barney Ewell, American athlete (d. 1996)
- Bobby Riggs, American tennis player (d. 1995)
- February 26 - Theodore Sturgeon, American writer (d. 1985)
- March 1
- Roger Delgado, British actor (d. 1973)
- João Goulart, President of Brazil (d. 1976)
- March 3
- Arthur Kornberg, American biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- Fritz Thiedemann, German equestrian (d. 2000)
- March 4 - Margaret Osborne duPont, former American female tennis player
- March 5 - James Tobin, American economist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2002)
- March 8 - Alan Hale, The Skipper on Gilligan's Island (d. 1990)
- March 9
- George Lincoln Rockwell, American Nazi leader (d. 1967)
- Mickey Spillane, American writer (d. 2006)
- March 11 - Jack Coe, American evangelist (d. 1956)
- March 12 - Elaine de Kooning, American artist (d. 1989)
- March 16 - Frederick Reines, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1998)
- March 17 - Mercedes McCambridge, American actress (d. 2004)
- March 18
- March 22 - Cheddi Jagan, President of Guyana (d. 1997)
- March 25 - Howard Cosell, American attorney, lecturer, and sports journalist (d. 1995)
- March 29
- Pearl Bailey, American singer and actress (d. 1990)
- Sam Walton, founder of Wal-Mart (d. 1992)
[edit] April - June
- April 8 - Betty Ford, First Lady of the United States
- April 9 - Jørn Utzon, Danish architect
- April 16 - Spike Milligan, Irish comedian (d. 2002)
- April 17 - William Holden, American actor (d. 1981)
- April 18 - Clifton Hillegass, American author, founder of CliffsNotes (d. 2001)
- April 20 - Kai Siegbahn, Swedish physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- April 22 - Mickey Vernon, baseball player
- April 26 - Fanny Blankers-Koen, Dutch athlete (d. 2004)
- May 1 - Jack Paar, American television show host (d. 2004)
- May 3 - Benjamin C. Thompson, American architect (d. 2002)
- May 9
- Mike Wallace, American journalist
- Orville L. Freeman, American politician (d. 2003)
- May 11 - Richard Feynman, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1988)
- May 12 - Julius Rosenberg, American-born Soviet spy (d. 1953)
- May 15
- Eddy Arnold, American singer
- Joseph Wiseman, Canadian actor
- May 16 - Wilf Mannion, English footballer (d. 2000)
- May 17 - Birgit Nilsson, Swedish soprano (d. 2005)
- May 19 - Abraham Pais, Dutch-born American physicist (d. 2000)
- May 20 - Edward B. Lewis, American geneticist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 2004)
- May 23 - Frank Mancuso, major league baseball player and politician (d. 2007)
- May 27 - Yasuhiro Nakasone, Prime Minister of Japan, 1982-87
- May 30 (towards) - Károly Doncsecz, Slovenian potter, Master of folk art (d. 2002)
- June 4 - Johnny Klein, American drummer (d. 1997)
- June 6 - Edwin G. Krebs, American biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- June 8 - Robert Preston, American Actor in The Music Man (d. 1987)
- June 18
- Jerome Karle, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate
- Franco Modigliani, Italian-born economist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2003)
[edit] July - September
- July 4
- Ann Landers, American advice columnist (d. 2002)
- Abigail Van Buren, American advice columnist and twin sister to Ann Landers
- Taufa'ahau Tupou IV, King of Tonga (d. 2006)
- July 5 - George Rochberg, American composer (d. 2005)
- July 6 - Sebastian Cabot, American Actor (d. 1977)
- July 9 - Jarl Wahlström, Salvation Army General (d. 1999)
- July 13 - Alberto Ascari, Italian race car driver (d. 1955)
- July 14 - Ingmar Bergman, Swedish film director (d. 2007)
- July 15 - Bertram N. Brockhouse, Canadian physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2003)
- July 17 - Carlos Manuel Arana Osorio, President of Guatemala (d. 2003)
- July 18 - Nelson Mandela, President of South Africa, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize
- July 24 - Ruggiero Ricci, Italian-born violinist
- July 25 - Jane Frank, American artist (d. 1986)
- July 27 - Leonard Rose, American cellist (d. 1984)
- July 29 - Edwin O'Connor, American novelist and Pulitzer Prize for Fiction winner (d. 1968)
- July 31 - Paul D. Boyer, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate
- August 3 - Sidney Gottlieb, American Central Intelligence Agency official (d. 1999)
- August 5 - Betty Oliphant, co-founder of National Ballet of Canada (d. 2004)
- August 8 - Brian Stonehouse, English painter and World War II spy (d. 1998)
- August 13 - Frederick Sanger, English biochemist, Nobel Prize laureate
- August 25 - Leonard Bernstein, American composer and conductor (d. 1990)
- August 26 - Hutton Gibson, Mel Gibson's father; a writer on religion
- August 30 - Ted Williams, American baseball player (d. 2002)
- September 3 - Helen Wagner, American actress/Soap opera star
- September 4 - Paul Harvey, American radio broadcaster
- September 8 - Derek Harold Richard Barton, British chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1998)
- September 13 - Rosemary Kennedy, President JFK's lobotomized sister (d. 2005)
- September 17 - Chaim Herzog, 6th President of Israel 1983–93 (d. 1997)
- September 19 - Robert S. Strauss, Democratic National Committee Chairman, Jimmy Carter's Presidential Campaign Chairman.
- September 21 - John Gofman, American Manhattan Project scientist and advocate (d. 2007)
- September 22 - Henryk Szeryng, Polish-born violinist (d. 1988)
- September 27 - Martin Ryle, English radio astronomer, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physics (d. 1984)
[edit] October - December
- October 4 - Kenichi Fukui, Japanese chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1998)
- October 8 - Jens Christian Skou, Danish chemist, Nobel Prize laureate
- October 9 - E. Howard Hunt, Coordinated Watergate break-in (d. 2007)
- October 17 - Rita Hayworth, American actress (d. 1987)
- October 18 - Constantine Mitsotakis, former Greek Prime Minister
- October 19 - Louis Althusser, French philosopher (d. 1990)
- October 27
- Mihkel Mathiesen, Estonian statesman (d. 2003)
- Teresa Wright, American actress (d. 2005)
- October 31 - Ian Stevenson, American parapsychologist (d. 2007)
- November 3
- Bob Feller, baseball player
- Elizabeth P. Hoisington, American Brigadier General (d. 2007)
- Russell B. Long, U.S. Senator from Louisiana (d. 2003)
- Dean Riesner, film and television screenwriter (d. 2002)
- November 4 - Art Carney, American actor (d. 2003)
- November 7 - Billy Graham, American Evangelist, Spiritual Adviser to Multiple U.S. Presidents
- November 9 - Spiro Agnew, American Vice President (d. 1996)
- November 10 - Ernst Otto Fischer, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate
- November 13 - Jack Elam, American actor (d. 2003)
- November 29 - Madeleine L'Engle, American author (d. 2007)
- November 30 - Efrem Zimbalist, American Actor ~ Voice Reading the Audio Bible
- December 8 - Gérard Souzay, French baritone (d. 2004)
- December 9 - Jerome Beatty, author of children's literature (d. 2002)
- December 11 - Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, Russian writer, Nobel Prize laureate
- December 12 - Joe Williams, American jazz singer (d. 1999)
- December 15 - Jeff Chandler, American actor (d. 1961)
- December 21
- Donald Regan, Chief of Staff and U.S. Treasury Secretary (d. 2003)
- Kurt Waldheim, President of Austria and Secretary-General of the United Nations (d. 2007)
- December 23
- José Greco, Italian-born flamenco dancer (d. 2001)
- Helmut Schmidt Head of State ~ Chancellor of Germany 1974-82
- December 25 - Anwar Sadat, President of Egypt, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1981)
[edit] Deaths
[edit] January - June
- January 6 - Georg Cantor, German mathematician (b. 1845)
- January 8 - Ellis H. Roberts, American politician (b. 1827)
- January 9 - Émile Reynaud, French science teacher and maker of the first animated films (b. 1844)
- January 28 - John McCrae, Canadian soldier and poet (b. 1872)
- February 6 - Gustav Klimt, Austrian painter (b. 1862)
- February 10 - Ernesto Teodoro Moneta, Italian pacifist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1833)
- March 10 - Jim McCormick, baseball player (b. 1856)
- March 13 - César Cui, Lithuanian composer (b. 1835)
- March 23 - T. P. Cameron Wilson, poet and novelist (killed in action) (b. 1888)
- March 25 - Claude Debussy, French composer (b. 1862)
- March 27 - Henry Adams, American historian (b. 1838)
- April 20 - Karl Ferdinand Braun, German phyicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1850)
- April 21 - Manfred von Richthofen, "Red Baron", German World War I pilot (b, 1892)
- April 28 - Gavrilo Princip, assassin of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria (b. 1894)
- May 14 - James Gordon Bennett, American newspaper publisher (b. 1841)
- May 19 - Raoul Lufbery, American World War I pilot (b. 1885)
- June 1 - Roderic Dallas, Australian air ace (killed in action) (b. 1891)
- June 10 - Arrigo Boito, Italian poet and composer (b. 1842)
[edit] July - December
- July 3 - Sultan Mehmed V of the Ottoman Empire (b. 1844)
- July 16 (N.S.) - Family of Tsar Nicholas II of Russia (b. 1868)
- July 22 - Indra Lal Roy, Indian World War I pilot (killed in combat) (b. 1898)
- August 1 - John Riley Banister, American law officer, cowboy, and Texas Ranger (b. 1854)
- August 10 - Jean Brillant, Canadian VC recipient (killed in action) (b. 1890)
- August 18 - Henry Norwest, Canadian World War I sniper (b. 1884)
- September 7 - Hector Sanchez, early wrestler in the Lucha Libre style (b. 1884)
- September 12 - George Reid, fourth Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1845)
- September 28 - Georg Simmel, German sociologist and philosopher (b. 1858)
- October 5 - Roland Garros, French pilot (shot down) (b. 1888)
- October 11 - Wallace Lloyd Algie, Canadian VC recipient (killed in action) (b. 1891)
- October 15 - Shirdi Sai Baba, Indian guru and fakir (b. circa 1838)
- October 22 - Myrtle Gonzalez, American stage and screen actress (b. 1891)
- November 4 - Wilfred Owen, English poet (killed in action) (b. 1893)
- November 9 - Guillaume Apollinaire, French poet (b. 1880)
- November 19 - Joseph Fielding Smith, tenth president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b. 1838)
- December 11 - Ivan Cankar, Slovenian writer (b. 1876)
- December 28 - Olavo Bilac, Brazilian poet (b. 1865)
[edit] Nobel prizes
- Physics - Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck
- Chemistry - Fritz Haber
- Medicine - not awarded
- Literature - not awarded
- Peace - not awarded
[edit] See also
[edit] Notes
- ^ "Calendar in year 1918 ([[Russia|]])" (Julian calendar, starting Tuesday), webpage: Julian-1918 (Romania used Julian in 1919, when Russia adopted Gregorian).
[edit] People of the year 1918 at Familypedia
12 people were born in 1918
2 children were born to the 5 women born in 1918
37 people died in 1918
1895 people lived in 1918
[edit] Events of the year 1918 at Familypedia
27 people were married in 1918.
There were 0 military battles in 1918.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
[edit] External references
[edit] Table of Contents
Contents |
| This page uses content from the English language Wikipedia. The original content was at 1918. The list of authors can be seen in the page history. As with this Familypedia wiki, the content of Wikipedia is available under the Creative Commons License. |
